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The default newline can be suppressed in one of two ways, depending on the shell: $ echo -n No newline No newline$ echo "No newline\c" No newline$ The BSD variety of echo accepted the option -n, which suppressed the newline. AT&T s version used an escape sequence, \c, to do the same thing. Or was it the other way round I have a hard time remembering which was which because, although I was using an AT&T system (hardware and operating system), its echo command accepted both AT&T and BSD syntax. That, of course, is history. In this book, we re dealing with bash, so why does it matter bash has the -e option to activate escape sequences such as \c but by default uses -n to prevent a newline from being printed. (The escape sequences recognized by echo -e are the same as those described in the next section, with the addition of \c.) The trouble is that bash has an xpg_echo option (XPG stands for X/Open Portability Guide, a specification for Unix systems) that makes echo behave like that other version. This can be turned on or off while in the shell (using shopt -s xpg_echo either at the command line or in a script), or it can be turned on when the shell is compiled. In other words, even in bash, you cannot be absolutely sure which behavior you are going to get. If you limit the use of echo to situations where there cannot be a conflict, that is, where you are sure the arguments do not begin with -n and do not contain escape sequences, you will be fairly safe. For everything else (or if you re not sure), use printf.

The Windows operating system has historically provided many APIs for building distributed systems. While it is true that most people consider a distributed system to involve at least two networked computers, this term in the broader sense can refer to two executables that need to exchange data, even if they happen to be running on the same physical machine. Using this definition, selecting a distributed API for your current programming task typically involves asking the following pivotal question:

Will this system be used exclusively in house, or will external users require access to the application s functionality

Field formatters are functions that define how the contents of a field are displayed. The hook_field_formatter_info() function identifies the types of formatters that are used to display the text and background in our example. /** * Implements hook_field_formatter_info(). */ function color_example_field_formatter_info() { return array( // This formatter just displays the hex value in the color indicated. 'color_example_simple_text' => array( 'label' => t('Simple text-based formatter'), 'field types' => array('color_example_rgb'), ), // This formatter changes the background color of the content region. 'color_example_color_background' => array( 'label' => t('Change the background of the output text'), 'field types' => array('color_example_rgb'), ), ); }

If you build a distributed system for in-house use, you have a far greater chance of ensuring that each connected computer is running the same operating system and using the same programming framework (e.g., .NET, COM, or the Java platform). Running in-house systems also means that you can leverage your existing security system for purposes of authentication, authorization, and so forth. In this situation, you might be willing to select a particular distributed API that will tie you to a specific operating system/programming framework for the purposes of performance.

In contrast, if you build a system that others must reach from outside of your walls, you have a whole other set of issues to contend with. First, you will most likely not be able to dictate to external users which operating system/s they can use, which programming framework/s they can use, or how they configure their security settings. Second, if you happen to work for a larger company or in a university setting that uses numerous operating systems and programming technologies, an in-house application suddenly faces the same challenges as an outward-facing application. In either of these cases, you need to limit yourself to a more flexible distributed API to ensure the furthest reach of your application. Based on your answer to this key distributed computing question, the next task is to pinpoint exactly which API (or set of APIs) to use. The following sections provide a quick recap of some of the major distributed APIs historically used by Windows software developers. Once you finish this brief history lesson, you will be able to see the usefulness of Windows Communication Foundation quite easily.

Next I ll build the renderable output for each of the two formatters just defined: 1. 2. color_example_simple_text just outputs markup indicating the color that was entered and uses an inline style to set the text color to that value. color_example_color_background does the same but also changes the background color of div.region-content. /** * Implements hook_field_formatter_view(). */ function color_example_field_formatter_view($entity_type, $entity, $field, $instance, $langcode, $items, $display) { $element = array(); switch ($display['type']) { // This formatter simply outputs the field as text and with a color. case 'color_example_simple_text': foreach ($items as $delta => $item) { $element[$delta]['#markup'] = '<p style="color: ' . $item['rgb']. '">' . t('The color for this event is @code', array('@code' => $item['rgb'])) . '</p>'; } break;